A Summary of Reproducing the 18

th
Century English Sea Biscuit
Research and Recipe by Jeff Pavlik
Making a reproduction sea biscuit, also called ships bread or simply biscuit during this era, would
seem like a simple task if we follow basic period descriptions of a large lump of dough, consisting merely
of flower and water, is mixed up together
1
But over the course of my research I have found many intricate
details in the historical record concerning the types of flour used, the manners that various nations made their
sea biscuits as well as observations on the science of baking these simple breads that all assist in better
reproducing a period biscuit in modern times. This paper is a brief summary of some of the highlights of my
research concerning the English sea biscuit. The French sea biscuit has some unique qualities that will not be
dealt with in this paper. The full text of my research will be maintained at my website when it is completed.
2

The first hurdle encountered in reproducing sea biscuits is that modern flours are in many ways
different than historic flours. Modern flour is more finely milled and more carefully dried as well as it is
bred to have a greater amount of gluten than the wheat of the colonial times. Biscuits made with only
modern flour will differ in dough elasticity, water absorption and will feel smoother then period biscuits.
The most significant problem is that millers of the period marketed a sort of ground wheat flour that is no
longer produced with modern milling technology. Various names were given to this sort of roughly ground
wheat: fourths, middlings, pollard and ships stuff. But a writer from the mid-18
th
century sums it up best,
The other sorts of flour, which biscuit and gingerbread makers use should be called coarse flour.
3

To best replicate the look of a sea biscuit a portion of the flour should be some sort of course flour
with recognizable pieces of the wheat grain to imitate the addition of sharps or middlings. Sharps are a
specific component of the unmilled flour known as middlings, the greatest portion of the whole flour is
constantly thrown into that assortment which is called Household, the rest and residue being Middlings only,
such as is chiefly used for Biscuit Stuffs.
4
Working in collaboration with Alisa Crawford, the miller at De
Zwaan, an 18
th
century windmill in Holland Michigan, I have been fortunate to utilize some of these sorts of
flours in my research.
5
Some options to make close replications of these coarse flours are given in the full
text of my research.
What will be adequate for most people in replicating a more period correct biscuit is using stone
ground red whole wheat flour and white whole wheat pastry flour.
6
Another simpler option is to just use
whole wheat flour and all-purpose flour. This combination has only a few of the attributes of period biscuit

1
William Falconer and William Burney, A New Universal Dictionary of Marine, (originally published London, 1815, reprint
Naval Institute Press, 2006), 40.
2
When the research is completed it will be published here: http://www.colonialbaker.net/english_sea_biscuit.html
3
Jonas Hanway, Letters on the imporantace of the rising of the generation of the laboring part, (London, 1766), 276.
4
Report from the committee appointed to consider of the methods practised in making flour from wheat, Parliament
Procedures, (London, 1774), 8.
5
Information on this windmill can be found at: http://www.cityofholland.com/Brix?pageID=111
6
I use King Arthur flours in my baking. http://www.kingarthurflour.com/flours/
flour, but suffices for our purposes. What is missing in this modern combination is the grittiness of sharps
and the coarseness of flour stuck to bran (called pollards) so this modern dough is much more supple and
smooth then that of period biscuits. The visible bran in modern whole wheat flour does give some texture to
the biscuit, but it should be recognized that long pieces of bran were sifted away as much as possible during
the colonial period.
Modern interpretations and recipes that describe the 18
th
century biscuit call for the addition of salt to
the dough. In none of the primary documents found in this research is salt a named an ingredient of a
biscuit. Salt is very important in the process of making risen bread as it helps bind the gluten proteins that
hold the loafs shape, helps control fermentation, gives bread a better flavor and maintains moisture in a
baked loaf. But none of these virtues of salt in bread-making are required for a biscuit. Salt is such a
mainstay in bread making that it has made its way into modern interpretations of a biscuit without any
merits. Biscuit makers of the period were well informed on the detrimental effects of salt in a biscuit and
were informed to not use salt salt can make it more likely to attract moisture from the air.
7
Besides the
lack of mention of salt in any documents on biscuits, we also have one poignant definition of a biscuit from
1701 that empathizes the lack of salt: Sea-Bisket- of excellent use for the Sea, because baked without Salt,
and well dried
8

When making biscuits the amount of water absorption in the flour is less important since the goal is
not to make a soft loaf rather one devoid of moisture. But in following any recipe for breads, be aware that
the amount of water called for might be needed to be adjusted. Biscuits, even with modern flour, begin with
approximately 30% water and that is reduced by baking and drying to a mere 5% or less of its total weight.
A period source confirms this ratio. The water must be nearly a third of the mass, and is lost completely in
the oven.
9
For one pound of flour you will obtain just under a pound of biscuit. The inefficiency of
biscuits use of flour was surpassed by its effectiveness in making a necessary and durable foodstuff for
trans-Atlantic voyages, continental warfare or exploration and trade into the interior of North America.
The size of 18
th
century biscuits varied, but in general the amount rationed was usually around one
pound for the English and one and half pounds for the French during this era. Therefore in formulating this
recipe I started with one pound of flour, which will yield one pound of biscuits, or what we can consider an
average ration for the colonial era. Three period descriptions of the biscuit making operation confirm this
flour-to-biscuit ratio. The Seamans Guide from 1797 states that it requires an hundred pounds of flour to
make ninety-two pounds of biscuits.
10
The 1802 Domestic Encyclopedia refers to a baker who takes 100
pounds of flour and when the dough is well baked, afford 90 lb of biscuit.
11
Lastly A New Universal
Dictionary of Marine from 1815 relates that flour for each batch is 112 pounds; which baked, produce 102

7
Encyclopdie Mthodique ou par ordre de Matires: Marine, Volume 1. (Paris, 1783), 145.
8
Samuel Jeake, A compleat body of arithmetic, (London, 1701), 74.
9
Encyclopdie Mthodique ou par ordre de Matires: Marine, Volume 1. (Paris,1783), 154.
10
John Cochrane, The Seamans Guide, (London, 1797), 26.
11
Anthony F.M. Willich and James Mease, The Domestic Encyclopaedia, vol. 1, (London, 1802), 267.
pounds of biscuits.
12
Dividing the pounds of flour used to make each pound of biscuit we can arrive at a
common ratio that confirms that for every 1 pound of biscuit produced it takes on average 1.1 pounds of
flour.
The recipe given will make 1 pounds of dough. This amount can be divided into three to five
pieces to make one ration of biscuit. The water lost by baking and drying the biscuits will reduce the breads
weight by 1/3 and give you the proper weight for each biscuit of the given size. Oven temperatures and
baking times are inconsistent in period documents. While the root of the word biscuit means twice
cooked, there are only a few references to these breads being baked multiple times. Baking them once for
an hour at 375 degrees and then air drying them for a few days is sufficient. There are an array of methods
and devices that the biscuit bakers used to facilitate the further drying of these breads that I elaborate in my
research paper. I suggest that the easiest manner to dry them at home is to place them on a cookie rack to
that they get can dehydrate on top and bottom, or store them in the oven with the door slightly ajar so that the
residual moisture can evaporate.
One English biscuit from 1784 is in the collections of the National Maritime Museum, Greenwich,
London and can be seen on their website.
13
The dimensions of this biscuit are 95mm (3 inches) diameter
by 10mm (9/16") thick, to replicate this size I recommend dividing the dough in my recipe into five pieces.
A piece of dough that fills a cup measuring cup will make a biscuit about this size. Whatever the size
biscuit you choose to make, it is best to press them down so that they are about inch thick. Biscuit
presses of the period were hefty pieces of metal imbedded with spikes that would puncture the bread to assist
in evaporation. A modern pizza docker works very well for this task, or an ice pick can be used to put
multiple holes in the biscuit.
After baking and thoroughly drying the biscuit, it should be very dense and not prone to breaking easily.
Cracks in the dough come from insufficient kneading and if the biscuit is not thick enough they can break in
storage or transport. When finished making biscuits you can compare them to a period test of a properly
made sea biscuit. A good biscuit breaks clean and crisp, has a shining appearance within, and the outside is
glossy. When soaked, it swells considerably in the water, without crumbling, or sinking to the bottom of the
vessel.
14




12
William Falconer and William Burney, A New Universal Dictionary of Marine, (originally published London, 1815, reprint
Naval Institute Press, 2006), 40.
13
http://www.nmm.ac.uk/collections/nelson/viewRepro.cfm?reproID=D4001%5F1&picture=1#content
This link will take you to the National Maritime Museum where you can observe the biscuit in detail. I am not in full
agreement with the text given along with this biscuit. Hard tack is not a word used during this period, nor were weevils a
significant problem with the provisions. To see an excellent debunking of the weevil myth see this article:
http://www.hms.org.uk/nelsonsnavymaggot.htm
14
Anthony F.M. Willich and James Mease, The Domestic Encyclopaedia, vol. 1, (London, 1802), 267.
Sea Biscuit Recipe
This recipe is the most basic manner to replicate the English sea biscuit of the 18
th
century using readily
available ingredients. The amount of dough made using this recipe will equal a ration of one pound of
biscuits after they are baked and dried.
2 cups whole wheat flour
1 cup white whole wheat pastry flour (or pastry flour or all-purpose flour)
1 cup plus 2 tablespoons of water


Preheat oven to 375 degrees.
Combine flour and water; add an additional tablespoon of water if the dough is too stiff for you to mix it
by hand. The dough will be denser then bread dough and you should be cautious using modern mixers as
they might not do well under the stress of this stiff dough. The initial water added to the flour will seem
insufficient to experienced bread makers, but give it time to incorporate and dough will form.
Knead dough until it is smooth. This will take a few minutes. The amount of kneading necessary is less
then when you are developing the gluten in yeasted dough, but the time and effort is this stiff dough is often
the same. The dough will become easier to knead after a short while once the water has had time to soak into
the flour.
Divide dough into three to five pieces. Hand roll each piece round like a dinner roll until it is a smooth
mass. Press the dough down with the palm of your hand until it is about inch thick. If the dough cracks on
the edges or splits then more kneading is required.
Make evaporation holes using a pizza docker or an ice pick. The holes do not have to go all the way
through the biscuit dough. The holes should be about inch apart from each other and cover the entire
surface of the biscuit.
Place biscuits on a cookie tray and bake for one hour. During the baking you can open the door of the
oven once or twice to let the evaporating water escape the baking chamber. After an hour remove the
biscuits and place them on a cookie rack to cool and to continue to dehydrate them by leaving them exposed.
You can also store them in the oven to dry once it is cooled. The biscuits will be ready for use as a
provision after they have dried for several days. They will keep indefinitely if maintained in a dry, cool
place and stored so that insects cannot access them.